Chloroplast Function, Definition, and Diagram (2024)

This entry was posted on January 29, 2024 by Anne Helmenstine (updated on May 8, 2024)

Chloroplasts are cellular organelles that are responsible for the process of photosynthesis. They are the reason Earth is a flourishing, green planet that supports diverse life forms.

Chloroplast Definition

A chloroplast is a type of organelle known as a plastid, predominantly found in plant cells and algae. It is the site of photosynthesis, a process where light energy is converted into chemical energy, fueling the organism’s activities.

Discovery and Word Origin

The discovery of chloroplasts dates back to the 19th century, with early microscopic observations made by botanists such as Julius von Sachs. The term “chloroplast” comes from the Greek words “chloros,” meaning green, and “plastes,” meaning formed or molded, highlighting their characteristic green color and intricate structure.

Organisms with Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are primarily found in plants and algae. They are absent in animals and fungi.

Some types of lichens contain chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are present when the photosynthetic partner is green algae, but not when cyanobacteria are the partner.

A few types of protozoa and animals contain chloroplasts, but they acquired them through a process known as secondary endosymbiosis. This process involves a eukaryotic host cell engulfing a photosynthetic eukaryotic cell. The primary examples of such organisms are:

  1. Euglenoids: Euglena, a well-known genus in this group, contains chloroplasts derived from green algae. These single-celled organisms live in freshwater and have both plant-like (photosynthetic) and animal-like (motile and heterotrophic) characteristics.
  2. Dinoflagellates: Dinoflagellates are a group of mainly marine plankton. Some species have chloroplasts originating from green algae and diatoms.
  3. Apicomplexans: This is a bit of an unusual case. Most apicomplexans, like the malaria parasite Plasmodium, are not photosynthetic. However, they retain a vestigial organelle called the apicoplast, which comes from chloroplasts. The apicoplast does not perform photosynthesis but it is essential for other vital cellular functions.
  4. Certain Marine Animals: There are rare instances where marine animals incorporate chloroplasts into their cells in a process called kleptoplasty. For example, sea slugs like Elysia chlorotica consume algae and then retain the chloroplasts within their own cells. While the chloroplasts perform photosynthesis for some time, the integration is not permanent, so the sea slugs must regularly consume algae to maintain their photosynthetic capability.

Location and Number in a Cell

Chloroplasts are a cell’s cytoplasm. The number varies greatly, ranging from one large chloroplast in some algae to hundreds in a single leaf cell of a higher plant, depending on the species and environmental conditions.

Structure of a Chloroplast

Chloroplasts have a lens shape in plants, although they have different shapes in algae, like a cup, a net, or a spiral. A typical chloroplast size is 3-10 μm in diameter and 1–3 μm thick. Each chloroplast contains at least three membrane systems: the outer membrane, inner membrane, and thylakoid system. A chloroplast’s structure is complex, comprising several distinct components:

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  • Outer Membrane: The outer membrane is a semi-permeable barrier that encases the organelle.
  • Inner Membrane: The inner membrane is located just inside the outer membrane. It regulates material entry and exit.
  • Stroma: The stroma is a fluid-filled space inside the outer and inner membranes containing enzymes, ribosomes, and DNA. The thylakoid system floats within the stroma. The Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma.
  • Thylakoid Membrane (Thylakoids): The thylakoid membrane consists of a system of interconnected membranes where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur. There are two types of thylakoids. Granal thylakoids are the pancake-like stacks, while stromal thylakoids are helical sheets that wrap around the grana.
  • Grana: Grana (singular: granum) are stacks of disc-like structures formed by thylakoid membranes. Each granum has between two to a hundred thylakoids, although stacks of 10-20 thylakoids are common.
  • Thylakoid Space: The thylakoid space or lumen is the interior of the granum. It contains proteins that drive the electron transport chain in photosynthesis.
  • Lamellae: Lamellae are membrane bridges connecting the grana.
  • DNA: Chloroplast DNA is packaged into nucleoids in the stroma. Each organelle may contain many nucleoids.
  • Ribosomes: The ribosomes in the stroma of a chloroplast are smaller than those in the cell’s cytoplasm. They synthesize some of the chloroplast’s proteins.
  • Starch Granules: Most chloroplasts contain starch granules. Starch granules account for up to 15% of a chloroplast’s volume. They accumulate in the stroma and grow in size during the daytime. Some hornworts and algae contain pyrenoids, which are structures that serve as the site of starch accumulation.
  • Plastoglobuli: Plastoglobuli (singular: plastoglobulus) are spheres of proteins and lipids. While they occur in all chloroplasts, they are more common in older organelles or ones under oxidative stress.

Functions of Chloroplasts

The primary function of chloroplasts is photosynthesis, comprising two stages: the light-dependent reactions occurring in the thylakoids, and the light-independent Calvin Cycle happening in the stroma. They also play roles in fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and the immune response. Chloroplasts also act as sensors for gravity and defense functions.

Pigments in Chloroplasts

Chlorophyll is the pigment responsible for the green color of plants and algae and the key molecule involved in photosynthesis. However, chloroplasts contain several pigments besides chlorophyll, which play crucial roles in photosynthesis and in protecting the cell from damage caused by sunlight. These pigments include:

  1. Carotenoids: These are yellow, orange, and red pigments that serve multiple functions. They absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis. They also provide photoprotection by dissipating excess light energy that could otherwise damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen to produce harmful reactive oxygen species. Carotenoids include compounds like beta-carotene and xanthophylls.
  2. Phycobilins: Found in the chloroplasts of red algae and cyanobacteria, phycobilins are water-soluble pigments that are present in phycobiliproteins. These pigments, which include phycocyanin and phycoerythrin, absorb different wavelengths of light than chlorophyll. They extend the range of light that can be used for photosynthesis.
  3. Accessory Pigments: These are additional pigments that help in capturing light energy. They transfer the energy to chlorophyll for the photosynthetic process. While not directly involved in the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, they are essential for efficient photosynthesis, especially under low-light conditions or in water, where light penetration is different from that on land.

Comparison with Other Plastids

Chloroplasts are a type of plastid that are distinct from others like chromoplasts (responsible for pigment synthesis and storage) and leucoplasts (involved in storage and biosynthesis of various molecules). Unlike these other plastids, chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis.

Comparison with Mitochondria

Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are organelles that have their own DNA and likely originated from endosymbiotic events, but they serve different functions. While chloroplasts are the centers of photosynthesis, mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, responsible for cellular respiration. Both organelles occur in plant cells.

Theories of Chloroplast Evolution

The prevailing theory of chloroplast evolution is the endosymbiotic theory. It suggests that chloroplasts originated from photosynthetic bacteria living symbiotically inside eukaryotic cells. This theory is supported by the presence of their own DNA, double membrane, and similarities to cyanobacteria.

Interesting Chloroplast Facts

Here are some interesting and useful facts about chloroplasts:

  • Dynamic Movement within Cells: Chloroplasts are not static within cells. They move in response to light intensity in a phenomenon known as chloroplast photorelocation movement. In low light, they spread out to maximize light absorption, while in intense light, they align along cell walls to minimize damage from excessive light.
  • Role in Gravity Perception: In some plant cells, especially in the root cap, chloroplasts perform gravity sensing. They settle at the bottom of cells, which helps the plant determine its growth direction.
  • Environmental Stress Response: Chloroplasts play a critical role in the plant’s response to environmental stresses. They signal to the nucleus to change the expression of certain genes in response to factors like drought, temperature changes, and light stress.
  • Chloroplast DNA: The DNA within chloroplasts is circular, similar to bacterial DNA. It encodes some of the essential proteins and enzymes needed for photosynthesis. This DNA is inherited maternally in most plants, meaning it’s passed down from the mother plant to its offspring.
  • Secondary Metabolite Synthesis: Chloroplasts play a role in the synthesis of secondary metabolites, which are important for plant defense, such as flavonoids and terpenoids.
  • Ancient Origins: Fossil evidence suggests that early plants contained chloroplasts over a billion years ago.
  • Size and Shape Variability: The size and shape of chloroplasts varies between different species and even within different tissues of the same plant. Also, not all plant cells contain chloroplasts.
  • Chloroplast Genome Reduction: Over evolutionary time, many chloroplast genes have transferred to the nucleus of the host cell, significantly reducing the size of the chloroplast genome.
  • Non-Photosynthetic Chloroplasts: Some plant cells contain chloroplasts that do not perform photosynthesis, especially in roots and non-green tissues. These chloroplasts participate in other biochemical pathways, such as amino acid and fatty acid synthesis.

References

  • Alberts, B. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
  • Burgess, J. (1989). An Introduction to Plant Cell Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31611-1.
  • Campbell, N.A.; Reece, J.B.; et al. (2009). Biology (8th ed.). Benjamin Cummings (Pearson). ISBN 978-0-8053-6844-4.
  • Hoober, J.K. (1984). Chloroplasts. New York: Plenum. ISBN 9781461327677.
  • Nakayama, T.; Archibald, J.M. (2012). “Evolving a photosynthetic organelle”. BMC Biology. 10 (1): 35. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-10-35

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